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WHAT IS DNA?

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DNA INFO


13/6/2007<>00:03

DNA 

Kategori: DNA INFO

 Kısaca DNA, tüm hücreli canlıların ve bazı virüslerin biyolojik gelişimleri için gerekli genetik bilgiyi taşıyan bir çeşit nükleik asittir. DNA, canlının özelliklerinin soydan soya geçmesini sağladığı için bazen kalıtım molekülü olarak da adlandırılır.

Bakterilerde ve diğer basit hücreli canlılarda DNA hücrenin içinde dağınık biçimde bulunur. Hayvanları ve bitkileri oluşturan daha karmaşık hücrelerde ise DNA'nın çoğu hücre çekirdeğindeki kromozomlarda bulunur. Enerji üreten kloroplast ve mitokondri organellerinde ve pek çok virüste de bir miktar DNA bulunur.
 
Moleküler yapı

Bazen "kalıtım molekülü" olarak adlandırılsa da, DNA aslında tek bir molekül değil, bir çift moleküldür. Bu çift molekül, bir sarmaşığın dalları gibi birbiri çevresinde dönerek bir sarmal oluştururlar.

Sarmaşık dalına benzer her molekül, bir DNA "ipliği"dir. Bu iplikler birbirlerine kimyasal olarak bağlanmış nükleotidlerden oluşur. Nükleotidler ise bir şeker, bir fosfat ve bir de dört çeşit azotlu bazlardan birisinden oluşur.

Bu dört çeşit baz, adenin, timin, sitozin ve guanindir. Sırası ile A, T, C ve G harfleri ile kısaltılırlar.

Bir DNA ikili sarmalında, iki polinükleotid (çok nükleotidli) iplik hidrofobik etki ile bağlanabilirler. Hangi ipliklerin birleşik kalacağı zıt eşleşme ile belirlenir. Her baz diğer bazların yalnızca bir çeşidi ile hidrojen bağları kurabilir (A ile T, C ile ise G bağ kurabilir) böylece bir iplikteki bazın niteliği kurulan bağın gücünü belirler; zıt bazlar ne kadar çok olursa kurulan bağ da o kadar güçlü ve uzun ömürlü olur.

Hücre mekanizması DNA ikili sarmalını birbirinden ayırıp her iki DNA ipliğini de yeni birer ipliği sentezlemek için şablon olarak kullanma yeteneğine sahiptir. Yeni üretilen iplikler öncekilerle hemen hemen tamamen aynıdır, ancak mutasyon adı verilen hatalar oluşabilir. Hücrenin bu özelliğini laboratuvar ortamında taklit eden işleme de PCR (polimeraz zincirleme tepkimesi) adı verilir.

Eşleşme nedeniyle nükleotidlerdeki bazlar sarmal eksenine doğru dönüktür. Bu yüzden şeker ve fosfat grupları sarmalın dış tarafında yer alır, ve oluşturdukları iki zincir sarmalın "iskeleti" olarak adlandırılır. Gerçekte, bir nükleotidi DNA ipliğinde bir sonrakine bağlı tutan fosfat ve şekerler arasındaki kimyasal bağlardır.

Nükleotid dizisinin önemi

Bir gen içerisinde DNA ipliği üzerindeki nükleotid dizisi her canlının yaşamı boyunca üretmek ve "ifade etmek" zorunda olduğu proteinleri tanımlar. Nükleotid dizisi ile proteinlerdeki amino asit dizisi arasındaki ilişki basit çeviri kurallarıyla belirlenir, bu kurallara topluca genetik kod adı verilir. Genetik kod, kodon denilen, üç nükleotidden oluşan, üç harfli 'kelimeler'den meydana gelir (Örneğin ACT, CAG, TTT). Bu kodonlar haberci RNA (mRNA) ve taşıyıcı RNA (tRNA) aracılığıyla ribozomlarda her kodon bir amino aside denk gelmek üzere proteinlere çevrilirler. 64 değişik kodon olasılığı ve sadece 20 değişik amino asit olduğundan birçok amino asidin birden fazla belirtici kodonu vardır. DNA üzerindeki nükleotidler mRNA ve daha sonra tRNA üzerine kopyalanırken timin nükleotidi (T) urasil (U) ile değiştirilir. Ayrıca protein sentezinin başlangıcını belirten bir başlatma kodonu (AUG, metionin amino asidini kodlar) ile bitimini belirten üç olası bitiş kodonu (UAA, UAG ve UGA) bulunur.

DNA'nın Çoğalması [değiştir]

Asıl makale: DNA'nın çoğalması

DNA çoğalması ya da DNA sentezi, hücre bölünmesi öncesinde çift sarmallı DNA'nın kopyalanması işlemidir. Kopyalanan yeni DNA iplikleri hemen hemen tamamen aynıdır, ancak zaman zaman çoğalmadaki hatalar nedeniyle kopyalama mükemmel olmaz (bkz. mutasyon), ve sonuçtaki her iki sarmal da bir eski ve bir yeni iplikten oluşur. Buna yarı korunumlu çoğalma denir. DNA'nın çoğalması işlemi üç adımdan oluşur: başlatma, ikileşme ve sonlandırma.

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA is a nucleic acid molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and ********ing of all living organisms. The main role of DNA is the long-term storage of information and it is often compared to a set of blueprints, since DNA contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.

Chemically, DNA is a long polymer of simple units called nucleotides, which are held together by a backbone made of alternating sugars and phosphate groups. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of molecules called bases. It is the sequence of these four bases along the backbone that encodes information. This information is read using the genetic code, which specifies the sequence of the amino acids within proteins. The code is read by copying stretches of DNA into the related nucleic acid RNA, in a process called tran******ion. Most of these RNA molecules are used to synthesize proteins, but others are used directly in structures such as ribosomes and spliceosomes.

Within cells, DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes and the set of chromosomes within a cell make up a genome. These chromosomes are duplicated before cells divide, in a process called DNA replication. Eukaryotic organisms such as animals, plants, and fungi store their DNA inside the cell nucleus, while in prokaryotes such as bacteria it is found in the cell's cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA, which helps control its interactions with other proteins and thereby control which genes are transcribed.

Moleküler yapı

Bazen "kalıtım molekülü" olarak adlandırılsa da, DNA aslında tek bir molekül değil, bir çift moleküldür. Bu çift molekül, bir sarmaşığın dalları gibi birbiri çevresinde dönerek bir sarmal oluştururlar.

Sarmaşık dalına benzer her molekül, bir DNA "ipliği"dir. Bu iplikler birbirlerine kimyasal olarak bağlanmış nükleotidlerden oluşur. Nükleotidler ise bir şeker, bir fosfat ve bir de dört çeşit azotlu bazlardan birisinden oluşur.

Bu dört çeşit baz, adenin, timin, sitozin ve guanindir. Sırası ile A, T, C ve G harfleri ile kısaltılırlar.

Bir DNA ikili sarmalında, iki polinükleotid (çok nükleotidli) iplik hidrofobik etki ile bağlanabilirler. Hangi ipliklerin birleşik kalacağı zıt eşleşme ile belirlenir. Her baz diğer bazların yalnızca bir çeşidi ile hidrojen bağları kurabilir (A ile T, C ile ise G bağ kurabilir) böylece bir iplikteki bazın niteliği kurulan bağın gücünü belirler; zıt bazlar ne kadar çok olursa kurulan bağ da o kadar güçlü ve uzun ömürlü olur.

Hücre mekanizması DNA ikili sarmalını birbirinden ayırıp her iki DNA ipliğini de yeni birer ipliği sentezlemek için şablon olarak kullanma yeteneğine sahiptir. Yeni üretilen iplikler öncekilerle hemen hemen tamamen aynıdır, ancak mutasyon adı verilen hatalar oluşabilir. Hücrenin bu özelliğini laboratuvar ortamında taklit eden işleme de PCR (polimeraz zincirleme tepkimesi) adı verilir.

Eşleşme nedeniyle nükleotidlerdeki bazlar sarmal eksenine doğru dönüktür. Bu yüzden şeker ve fosfat grupları sarmalın dış tarafında yer alır, ve oluşturdukları iki zincir sarmalın "iskeleti" olarak adlandırılır. Gerçekte, bir nükleotidi DNA ipliğinde bir sonrakine bağlı tutan fosfat ve şekerler arasındaki kimyasal bağlardır.
 Nükleotid dizisinin önemi [değiştir]

Bir gen içerisinde DNA ipliği üzerindeki nükleotid dizisi her canlının yaşamı boyunca üretmek ve "ifade etmek" zorunda olduğu proteinleri tanımlar. Nükleotid dizisi ile proteinlerdeki amino asit dizisi arasındaki ilişki basit çeviri kurallarıyla belirlenir, bu kurallara topluca genetik kod adı verilir. Genetik kod, kodon denilen, üç nükleotidden oluşan, üç harfli 'kelimeler'den meydana gelir (Örneğin ACT, CAG, TTT). Bu kodonlar haberci RNA (mRNA) ve taşıyıcı RNA (tRNA) aracılığıyla ribozomlarda her kodon bir amino aside denk gelmek üzere proteinlere çevrilirler. 64 değişik kodon olasılığı ve sadece 20 değişik amino asit olduğundan birçok amino asidin birden fazla belirtici kodonu vardır. DNA üzerindeki nükleotidler mRNA ve daha sonra tRNA üzerine kopyalanırken timin nükleotidi (T) urasil (U) ile değiştirilir. Ayrıca protein sentezinin başlangıcını belirten bir başlatma kodonu (AUG, metionin amino asidini kodlar) ile bitimini belirten üç olası bitiş kodonu (UAA, UAG ve UGA) bulunur.

DNA'nın Çoğalması

DNA çoğalması ya da DNA sentezi, hücre bölünmesi öncesinde çift sarmallı DNA'nın kopyalanması işlemidir. Kopyalanan yeni DNA iplikleri hemen hemen tamamen aynıdır, ancak zaman zaman çoğalmadaki hatalar nedeniyle kopyalama mükemmel olmaz (bkz. mutasyon), ve sonuçtaki her iki sarmal da bir eski ve bir yeni iplikten oluşur. Buna yarı korunumlu çoğalma denir. DNA'nın çoğalması işlemi üç adımdan oluşur: başlatma, ikileşme ve sonlandırma.

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10/5/2007 - CANCER

Ülkemizde 1970’li yıllarda sebebi bilinen ölümler arasında 4. sırada yer alan kanser, son yıllarda kardiyovasküler sistem hastalıklarından sonra 2. sıraya yükseldi.

Kanserin sebebi nedir?

Çevresel ve içsel nedenler olarak ikiye ayrılabilir. Çevresel nedenler (kimyasal, radyasyon, viruslar gibi) ve içsel nedenler (hormonal, bağışıklık bozuklukları, kalıtsal mutasyonlar ve diğer genetik nedenler gibi) birlikte veya ardışık olarak hücreleri etkileyerek uzun yıllar içinde kansere yol açabilirler.

Hangi organlarda kanser olur?
Kanser tek bir hastalık olmayıp, vücuttaki tüm doku ve organlarda kanser gelişebilir.

İyi huylu ve kötü huylu tümör ne demektir?
İyi huylu tümörler kanser değildir. Başka bölgelere yayılmazlar. Tamamen çıkartıldığı zaman genellikle tekrarlamazlar. Kötü huylu tümörler ya da kanser ise komşu organ ve dokulara yayıldığı gibi, lenf ve kan yoluyla uzak organlara da yayılır. Uzak organlardaki yayılımına metastaz (yayılma) denir.

Sigarayı bırak, kanser riskini azalt

Kanser ne sıklıkla görülen bir hastalıktır?
Erişkinlerde her yıl 100 bin nüfus için 150-300 kişi kansere yakalanır. Ülkemizde her yıl 150 bin kişinin kansere yakalandığı tahmin edilir.

Kanserden korunmak mümkün mü?
Sigara ve alkol kullanımı ile gelişen kanserlerin önlenmesi mümkün. Bu maddelerin kullanılmaması ile tam koruma mümkün olur. Ayrıca güneş ışınlarından korunma ile deri kanserinden çok yüksek oranlarda korunmam mümkün. Kanserden korunmada beslenmenin de rolü büyük.

Kanserden nasıl korunabilirsiniz?
Sigara içmeyerek, beslenme alışkanlıklarına ve yaşam tarzına dikkat ederek, güneş ışınlarından korunarak kanserden korunmak mümkün.
Sigara ve tütün kullanımından kaçınmak:
Sigara ve tütün ürünlerinin akciğer kanseri, ağız, yutak (farinks), soluk borusu (larinks), yemek borusu, pankreas, rahim ağzı (serviks), böbrek ve idrar torbası (mesane) kanserlerine yol açtığı kesin olarak biliniyor. Bu nedenle sigarayı içmeyerek bu kanserlerdenkorunubilirsiniz.
Sadece sigara içenler değil, pasif sigara içicileri de bu hastalıklara karşı risk altında bulunur.
Beslenme ve diyet:
Bitkisel kaynaklı besinlerin fazla tüketilmesi, özellikle hayvansal kaynaklı yüksek yağlı gıdaların sınırlandırılması, bitkisel yağların tercih edilmesi, fiziksel olarak aktif olup, egzersiz yapılması ve ideal ağırlığın korunması, alkol tüketiminin sınırlandırılması kanserden korunmada etkin rol oynuyor.
Güneş ışınlarından korunma:
Bazal ve skuamöz hücreli deri kanserleri güneş ışınlarına maruz kalma sonucunda ortaya çıkıyor. Bu nedenle güneş ışınından korunulması ile bu kanserlerin gelişimi engellenebilir.

Kanserle mücadelede eğitim şart

Erken tanı işe yarar mı?
Kişilerin kendi kendini muayenesi, kontrol muayeneleri ve taramalar ile erken tanı mümkün. Böylece hastalığı daha erken tanı konulabildiğinden tedavi şansı da yükseliyor. Buradan hareketli hiç şikayeti olmayanlar bile düzenli doktor kontrolleri yaptırmaları öneriliyor.
Erken tanı için bazı öneriler:
Meme kanseri:
40 yaş ve üzerindeki kadınlar her ay kendi kendine meme muayenesi yapmalı, yılda bir kez doktor muayenesi ve mamografi yaptırmalı. 20-39 yaşındaki bayanlar ise her ay kendi kendine meme muayenesi yapmalı, 3 yılda bir de mamografi yaptırmalı.
Kalın Bağırsak Kanserleri:
50 yaşından sonra dışkıda gizli kan testi, belirli aralıklarla sigmoidoskopi, kolonoskopi ve bağırsak filmi çekilebilir. (Ayrıntı için doktorunuza danışınız.)
Rahim kanserleri:
Cinsel olarak aktif olanlar ve 18 yaşın üzerinde olanlar yılda bir kez PAP testi ve pelvik muayene yaptırmalı. Ardışık üç muayene normalse daha seyrek yapılabilir.
Prostat kanseri:
50 yaş ve üzerindeki erkekler yılda bir kez doktor muayenesi ve PSA (prostat spesifik antijen testi) yaptırmalı.

Kanserin başlıca belirti ve bulguları nelerdir?
Kanserin belirti ve bulguları köken aldığı doku ve organlara göre değişir. Hatta bazen hiç belirti ve bulgu vermeden kontrol muayenelerinde kanser tanısı konulabilir.
Aşağıdaki belirtilere dikkat edin:
* Dışkılama ve idrar alışkanlıklarında değişiklikler
* Uzun süren, iyileşmeyen yaralar
* Beklenmeyen kanama ve akıntılar
* Meme veya başka organlarda elle hissedilen şişlikler
* Yutma güçlüğü veya hazımsızlık
* Siğil ve benlerde belirgin değişiklik
* Uzun süren ses kısıklığı ve öksürük

Bu bulgular her zaman kanser demek değildir. Ancak nedenlerinin belirlenmesi için mutlaka bir doktora başvurulması gerekir. Kanser bulaşıcı bir hastalık olmayıp, erken tanısı ve tedavisi mümkün bir hastalık grubudur.

Kanser nasıl tedavi edilir?

Cerrahi, radyoterapi, kemoterapi, hormonoterapi, immünoterapi başlıca tedavi yöntemleridir.

Kanserden kurtulmak ne oranda mümkündür?
Tüm kanser türleri birlikte değerlendirildiğinde erişkin kanserlerinde % 60, çocuk kanserlerinde ise % 77 oranında iyileşme mümkündür. Ancak hastalığın cinsi, yaygınlığı, uygulanan tedavi gibi bazı faktörler tedavi şansını doğrudan etkiler.


KAYNAK: Türk Kanser Araştırma ve Savaş Kurumu


For other uses, see Cancer (disambiguation).
Cancer
Classification & external resources
When normal cells are damaged beyond repair, they are eliminated by apoptosis. Cancer cells avoid apoptosis and continue to multiply in an unregulated manner
DiseasesDB     28843
MedlinePlus     001289
MeSH     C04

Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these to spread, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis (where cancer cells are transported through the bloodstream or lymphatic system). Cancer may affect people at all ages, but risk tends to increase with age. It is one of the principal causes of death in developed countries.

There are many types of cancer. Severity of symptoms depends on the site and character of the malignancy and whether there is metastasis. A definitive diagnosis usually requires the histologic examination of tissue by a pathologist. This tissue is obtained by biopsy or surgery. Most cancers can be treated and some cured, depending on the specific type, location, and stage. Once diagnosed, cancer is usually treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. As research develops, treatments are becoming more specific for the type of cancer pathology. Drugs that target specific cancers already exist for several types of cancer. If untreated, cancers may eventually cause illness and death, though this is not always the case.

The unregulated growth that characterizes cancer is caused by damage to DNA, resulting in mutations to genes that encode for proteins controlling cell division. Many mutation events may be required to transform a normal cell into a malignant cell. These mutations can be caused by radiation, chemicals or physical agents that cause cancer, which are called carcinogens, or by certain viruses that can insert their DNA into the human genome. Mutations occur spontaneously, and may be passed down from one cell generation to the next as a result of mutations within germ lines. However, some carcinogens also appear to work through non-mutagenic pathways that affect the level of tran******ion of certain genes without causing genetic mutation.

Many forms of cancer are associated with exposure to environmental factors such as tobacco smoke, radiation, alcohol, and certain viruses. Some risk factors can be avoided or reduced.

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GİRİŞ


10/5/2007<>22:09

 

 

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Illustrations


27/4/2007<>01:22
kategori: medical

Illustrations

Heart, section through the middle
Heart, section through the middle
Heart, front view
Heart, front view
Acute MI
Acute MI
Posterior heart arteries
Posterior heart arteries
Cholesterol producers
Cholesterol producers
Anterior heart arteries
Anterior heart arteries

Alternative names    Return to top

Coronary artery disease; Arteriosclerotic heart disease; CHD; CAD

Definition    Return to top

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a narrowing of the small blood vessels that supply blood and oxygen to the heart. CHD is also called coronary artery disease.

Causes, incidence, and risk factors    Return to top

Coronary heart disease usually results from the build-up of fatty material and plaque, a condition called atherosclerosis. As the coronary arteries narrow, the flow of blood to the heart can slow or stop, causing chest pain (stable angina), shortness of breath, heart attack, or other symptoms.

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of death in the United States for men and women. According to the American Heart Association, some one in the United States has a CHD-related event about every 29 seconds. Every minute someone dies from one.

The risk of CHD after age 40 is 49% for men and 32% for women. As women get older, the risk increases so that it is almost equal to a man's risk. (See also heart disease and women.)

There are many factors that increase your risk for CHD. Some risks are based on family history (genetics). Others are more controllable. Risk factors include:

  • Family history of coronary heart disease (especially before age 50)
  • Male gender
  • Age (65 and greater)
  • Tobacco smoking
  • High blood pressure
  • Diabetes
  • High cholesterol levels (specifically, high LDL cholesterol and low HDL cholesterol)
  • Lack of physical activity or exercise
  • Obesity
  • Higher-than-normal markers of inflammation
  • High blood homocysteine levels
  • Menopause

Symptoms    Return to top

The symptoms associated with coronary heart disease may be pronounced, but the disease can also exist without noticeable symptoms.

Chest pain (angina) is the most common symptom. It results from the heart not getting enough blood or oxygen. The intensity of the pain varies from person to person.

Chest pain may be typical or atypical.

Typical chest pain is felt under the sternum (breast bone) and feels heavy or squeezing. It usually occurs with activity (exertion) or emotion, and it goes away with rest or nitroglycerin.

Atypical chest pain can be felt in the left chest, abdomen, back, or arm. It is often fleeting or sharp. Atypical chest pain is unrelated to exercise and is not relieved by rest or nitroglycerin. Atypical chest pain is more common in women.

Adults with typical chest pain have a higher risk of CHD than those with atypical chest pain.

Other symptoms include:

  • Shortness of breath. This may be a symptom of congestive heart failure. The heart is weak because of a long-term lack of blood and oxygen or because of a recent or past heart attack. If the heart is not pumping enough blood to the body, shortness of breath may be accompanied by swollen feet and ankles.
  • Heart attack. In some cases, the first sign of CHD is a heart attack. The heart attack occurs when atherosclerotic plaque or a blood clot blocks the blood flow of the coronary artery to the heart. The coronary artery was likely already narrowed from CHD. The pain associated with a heart attack is usually severe, lasts longer than the chest pain described above, and is not relieved with rest or nitroglycerin.

Signs and tests    Return to top

There are many tests that help diagnose CHD. Usually, more than one test will be done before a definitive diagnosis is made. Some of the tests include:

Treatment    Return to top

The treatment for CHD depends on your symptoms and the severity of disease. General treatments involve lifestyle changes, medications, and medical procedures, including surgery.

Lifestyle changes may include:

  • Maintaining a healthy body weight
  • Eating a heart healthy diet which avoids saturated fats, cholesterol, and trans fat
  • Reducing sodium (salt) to keep high blood pressure under control
  • Regular exercise
  • Strict control of diabetes
  • Quitting smoking

Medications may include:

  • Cholesterol-lowering medication such as a statin
  • Antiplatelet (blood-thinning) drugs such as aspirin, warfarin, or clopidogrel, which reduce the risk of blood clots
  • Beta-blockers to decrease heart rate, lower blood pressure, and reduce oxygen use by the heart
  • Nitrates such as nitroglycerin to dilate the coronary arteries, stop chest pain, and improve blood supply to the heart
  • Calcium-channel blockers to relax the coronary arteries and all arteries in the body, reducing the workload for the heart and lowering blood pressure
  • ACE inhibitors, diuretics, or other medications to lower blood pressure

Percutaneous Coronary Interventions (PCI's) include:

  • Coronary angioplasty (Balloon PTCA)
  • Coronary atherectomy
  • Coronary stenting (placing a tube called a stent in the artery to keep it open)
  • Coronary radiation implant or coronary brachytherapy

Coronary brachytherapy consists of delivering beta or gamma radiation into the coronary arteries. This new treatment is reserved for patients who have undergone stent implantation in a coronary artery and developed problems, such as diffuse in-stent restenosis.

Surgical procedures include:

Expectations (prognosis)    Return to top

The outcome is different for every person. Some people can maintain a healthy life by changing their diet, stopping smoking, and taking medications as long as they are closely monitored. Others may require medical procedures such as PCI or surgery.

Although everyone is different, it is always essential to detect CHD early for the best outcome.

Complications    Return to top

Calling your health care provider    Return to top

If you have any of the risk factors for CHD, you should contact your health care provider for appropriate prevention and treatment. If you experience angina, shortness of breath, or symptoms of a heart attack, contact your health care provider, call 911 or go to the emergency room immediately.

Prevention    Return to top

  • See your health care provider regularly.
  • Don't smoke.
  • Eat a low fat, low cholesterol diet.
  • Eat well-balanced meals that include several daily servings of fruits and vegetables.
  • Develop a routine exercise regimen. Short, frequent sessions of exercise are preferable to a complete sedentary lifestyle. Walking instead of driving, taking the stairs instead of the elevator, and parking far from building entrances are all measures that most people can incorporate into their busy routines.
  • Keep blood pressure under control.
  • Maintain weight appropriate for your frame and build.
  • Inquire about what vitamin supplements may be helpful in the prevention of CHD.
  • Manage stress.

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menisküs yırtığı nedir


27/4/2007<>01:18
kategori: medical

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E .Ersel GÜDENOĞLU Sağlık Memuru
Milli Takım Masörü
 
   

1. GİRİŞ
Menisküsler uyluk kemiği ve kaval kemiğinin eklem yüzeyleri arasındaki boşluğu kısmen dolduran, yarım ay biçimindeki fibro-kıkırdak oluşumlardır. Bu oluşumlar eklemi, bütün hareketler sırasında stabilize eder ve içe dışa döndürme hareketi, ayrıca ayağı içe ve dışa doğru açma ve kapama hareketinin sınırlandırılmasını sağlar. Yine menisküsler yük binen bölgenin yüz ölçümünü artırarak uyluk ve kaval kemiği arasında bir amortisör görevi görür ve ayrıca eklemin kayganlığını sağlarlar.
Menisküs yaralanmaları hemen, hemen bütün spor dallarında görülmekle birlikte özellikle temas sporlarında görülme oranı daha fazladır. Dış menisküs yaralanmaları çoğu zaman bağ yaralanmaları ile birliktedir. Bu kısmen dış yan bağa bağlı olmasından, kısmen de darbelerin çoğu zaman dizin dış yanına isabet ederek kaval kemiğinin dışa doğru dönmesine yol açmasından kaynaklanmaktadır.
Gerçekten de dış menisküs yaralanmalarının sıklığı iç menisküs yaralanmalarının hemen, hemen beş katı kadar fazla sıklıkla olmaktadır.



Sağ diz eklemi anatomik yapısı
(Resmi büyültmek için üzerinitıklayınız.)
 
   
Menisküs yaralanmaları çoğu zaman diz ekleminin hareket zorlamalarına yol açan kuvvetler sonucu oluşur. Ayağın ve alt bacağın uyluk kemiğine göre dışa doğru dönmesi durumunda yaralanma en çok dış menisküste oluşur. Buna karşılık ayağın ve alt bacağın içe doğru dönmesi durumunda en kolay iç menisküs zarar görür.
Menisküs yaralanmaları ayrıca ayak ekleminin aşırı şekilde içe ve/veya dışa doğru açılıp kapanması sonucu da gelişebilir. Yaşlılarda menisküsler normal vücut hareketleri sırasında, örneğin dizler aşırı büküldüğünde dış eklerin yol açtığı zayıflık nedeniyle zarar görebilir.
Menisküs yaralanmaları herhangi bir darbe sonucuysa, yırtılma menisküs boyunca dikey olarak gelişir. Yaşlılarda ise yatay yırtıklar daha çok görülür.
Şüphelenen ya da kesin teşhis konulmuş olan her iki menisküs yaralanmasında da bağların yapıları incelenmelidir.
İnsan olarak elimizdeki tek materyal olan vücudumuzu iyi tanımalı ve onu olabildiğince korumaya çalışmalıyız.


Menisküsler, çapraz bağlar iç yan bağların anatomik yapısı
 
2. MENİSKÜS YARALANMA VE SAKATLIKLARINDA TEDAVİ AŞAMASINDA YAPILABİLECEKLER :
Tedavi aşamasında :
Menisküs yaralanmasının oluştuğu süphesi halinde öncelikle kişiye diz bağlarına yönelik egzersizler yaptırlmalıdır. Diz ameliyatı için sıra bekleyenlerin uyluk kaslarına her gün belirli sıralar dahilinde egzersizler yaptırmak son derece önemlidir. Bu egzersizler kasların gereksiz yere zayıf kalmasını önleyerek rehabilitasyon dönemini büyük ölçüde kısaltır.
Menisküsün hasar görmüş kısmını çıkarmak veya eski yerine dikmek için cerrahi müdahale gereklidir. Akut kilitlenme vakalarında mümkün olduğunca en kısa sürede cerrahi müdahale yapılmalıdır. Bunun yanında belirli menisküs yaralanmaları atroskopi sırasında başarı ile tedavi edilebilir.
Diz bağlarını oluşturan kasları ve dizi bükmeye yarayan kasları çalıştıracak antrenmanlar yapılmalıdır. Bu antrenmalara ameliyattan sonra en kısa zamanda başlanılmalıdır. Bir iki hafta süre ile koltuk değneği kullanılması ameliyatlı bacağın üzerindeki yükü hafifleteceği için önerilir.


Menisküs'ün iç yan bağa olan bağlantı yerinden ayrılmış şekli
Menisküs ameliyatı olmuş bir kişi diz ekleminin gücü ve mobilitesi tamamen yerine gelinceye kadar her zamanki yapılan antrenmanlara dönmemelidir. Antrenmanlara dönüş süresi, cerrahi müdahaleden sonr 4-8 hafta, atroskopik ameliyattan sonra ise 1-2 hafta kadardır.
Ameliyatlar ise mümkün olduğunca günlük ve devamlı olmalı verilen programın dışına çıkılmamalıdır.

3. DIŞ YAN MENİSKÜS YARALANMALARI :
Genel olarak baktığımızda dış yanda gelişen menisküsü teşhis etmek için şu bulgulara dikkat etmemiz gerekir.

- Diz ekleminin hareketleri sırasında eklemin dış yan taradında belirli bir bölgede ağrı. Bu ağrı bir çok vakada belirli egzersizler yapıldıktan sonra ortaya çıkar.
- Diz ekleminde kilitlenme oluşumları.
- Diz ekleminin aşırı şekilde içe veya dışa doğru hareketlerinde ve ayrıca diz ekleminin 90 derecelik pozisyonundaki durumunda ayağın ve alt bacağın kaval kemiğine doğru içe döndürülmesinde diz dış yan eklem çizgisinde bölgesel ağrı oluşumu.
- Diz dış yan eklem çizgisi üzerinde belirli bir noktada hassasiyet ve ağrı.
- Diz ekleminin içe doğru aşırı bükülmesi durumunda diz eklemi dış yan çizgisi üzerinde bölgesel ağrı.
- Diz ekleminin farklı açılarda döndürülmesi durumunda oluşan bölgesel ağrılar.
- Diz ekleminin stabilitesini sağlayan kuadriseps kasında zayıflama ve boyca kasılma.

Yukarıda sıraladığımız şikâyetlerin varlığı durumunda fazla geç kalmadan mutlaka bir uzman doktora başvurulmalı ve kendisine verilen öneriler doğrultusunda
hareket edilmelidir.



Menisküs'ün uzunlamasına ve enlemesine yırtılmış şekli
 
4- KAYNAKLAR :  
  • Doc.Dr. Tansel ÜNSALDI "Ortopedi ve travmoloji."
  • Erciyes Üniversitesi Yayınları "Anatomi Ders Kitapları."
  • Prf. Dr. Tunç Alp KALYON "Spor Sakatlıkları."
  • M. Stock - M. Winter " Goteburg Universty"
  • Prf. Dr. Burhan USLU "Sportif yaralanmalar."
  • L. Peteson - D. Penstrom " Günlük Uygulamada Spor Yaralanmaları."

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WHAT IS DNA?


27/4/2007<>01:16
kategori: medical

 

Dog to DNA

A beginner's guide to the molecular genetics of the dog

Written by Dr Jeff Sampson BSc. D.Phil. & Diana Nicolson BSc.(Hons)

Ever wondered how a single fertilised egg gives rise to a perfectly formed individual which contains more than a million, million individual cells? The process clearly involves cell growth and very many cell divisions; so, the fertilised egg divides into two and each of these two new cells divides to give four cells, then each of these divide to give eight cells and so on until the final cell number is achieved. However, the process of development of an individual from a single fertilised egg involves more than just simply cell growth and division. Different cells assume different characteristics so that some become liver cells, others become heart cells, others become retinal cells in the eye, and so on. Furthermore, the process is exquisitely controlled so that the final individual is unique but possesses a form and shape that is characteristic of the species. What is even more remarkable is that, within a species, this process always results in an individual with the same overall form, shape and characteristics as all others of that species..

 

WHAT ARE GENES?

The process of development of the fertilised egg has to be controlled very precisely and each fertilised egg contains a set of plans that is used to control not only the growth and division of the cells, but also to decide which cells become liver cells, kidney cells, retinal cells, and so on. The same plans are also used to orchestrate the intricate cell movements that are required to ensure that each new individual assumes the shape and form characteristic of the species. These plans are stored in the genes and are made of a complex molecule called DNA (more about this later). So, in the dog the fertilised egg contains a set of genes whose role is to ensure that it develops into a dog. Not only do the genes control the development of the fertilised egg, they also control every characteristic displayed by the dog once it has been born.

 

HOW MANY GENES ARE THERE IN THE DOG?

No one knows precisely how many genes are required to specify a dog, but a fair guess would be that in the region of one hundred thousand different genes are required to ensure the correct development and ********ing of a dog. All of these one hundred thousand different genes are present in the canine fertilised egg. In fact, it is more complicated than that because each fertilised egg contains two complete sets of genes, in other words there are two copies of each and every gene. One set, the maternal set, is deposited in the egg as it develops in the dam; the other set, the paternal set, is placed in the sperm as it develops in the sire. When the sperm fertilises the egg it physically injects the paternal set of genes producing a fertilised egg containing two sets of genes, one maternal and one paternal. Prior to each and every cell division that occurs after fertilisation these two sets of genes are faithfully copied so that the daughter cells receive two complete copies of the genes.

 

HOW DO GENES WORK?

We have said that the genes store plans, but plans for what? The plans are used by cells to make molecules called protein; essentially each gene contains a plan that enables the cell to make a unique protein. So, if there are one hundred thousand genes in the dog, it stands to reason that you require that number of different proteins to make a dog. It is the activity of these proteins, either working individually or co-operatively in groups, that determines every characteristic, both physical and behavioural, of the dog. Let us give you an example: There is a group of genes that is used by retinal cells in the eye to make their corresponding proteins and these proteins work together in a very precise sequence to convert light that falls on the retina into a nerve impulse that passes down the optic nerve to the brain. In other words, this specialist group of proteins allow dogs to see.

 

WHAT IS DNA?
Genes are made of deoxyribonucleic acid, more commonly known by its abbreviation, DNA. It is a complex molecule made of four individual chemical structures, known as bases and identified by the initials of their names ( A, C, G and T), that are joined end to end. Each gene contains approximately 2000 of these bases in a seemingly random sequence. Within an individual gene the plan that is ultimately deciphered by the cell to make a protein is embedded within this sequence of bases; each gene has a unique sequence of the four bases.

WHAT ARE CHROMOSOMES?

Each cell contains an immense amount of DNA, 2 metres-worth if it was completely teased out. All of this DNA has to fit into a cell which has a diameter of approximately 0.0001cm; clearly the DNA has to undergo extraordinary folding to fit into each cell, giving rise to structures known as chromosomes. Each chromosome has a thread of DNA running along its length and the genes are arranged along this DNA thread, rather like beads on a string. There are 78 chromosomes in the canine cell (actually 39 pairs: one complete chromosome set carrying all the maternal genes and the second set carrying all the paternal genes); 38 pairs of so-called autosomes and two chromosomes involved in specifying sex ( X or Y chromosomes). Sex determination in the dog is exactly the same as in humans; bitches have two X chromosomes whilst dogs have one X and one Y chromosome.

 

WHAT ARE MUTATIONS AND HOW CAN THEY CAUSE INHERITED DISEASE?

So, each gene contains a plan which is embedded in the precise sequence of bases along the DNA molecule that make up the gene and approximately one hundred thousand different genes are required to specify the dog. Sometimes the plan embedded within a gene becomes altered by a process known as mutation. This might involve a change in the sequence of bases, removal of some of the base sequence, or addition of extra base sequence within the gene. The consequences of a mutation will very much depend on the gene in which it has occurred. Some mutations are silent and have no consequences, others can affect the gene to such an extent that the plan can no longer be used to make a ********al protein . For example, the mutation of one of those retinal genes that we discussed earlier would mean the retinal cells would be missing one of the proteins that are crucial for sight, leading to a disease like progressive retinal atrophy (PRA) and blindness in affected dogs. The main point is that once a mutation has occurred within a gene, it is fixed forever and cannot be reversed. The animal carrying the mutation will then pass on the mutant gene to some of its offspring; if the consequence of the mutation is a disease state, we now have an inherited disease

 

WHAT CAUSES MUTATIONS?

It is fair to say that we do not know all of the causes of mutation, but we certainly know of some. Radiation in its various guises can interfere with the chemical structure of DNA leading to mutations in genes where the alterations have taken place. These radiation-induced changes can occur anywhere within the DNA molecule. Mutations are also probably a natural consequence of life. Remember we said that every time that a cell divides it has to make a complete copy of its DNA so that the two progeny cells each have a full DNA complement. This poses an immense problem because this copying involves the faithful reproduction of a sequence containing three thousand million bases. The machinery that cells have evolved is incredibly efficient, containing systems that attempt to identify and correct any mistakes that might occur, but it is not absolutely perfect and copying errors do occur. Occasionally, these copying errors will lead to mutations within a particular gene.

 

MUTATIONS ARE EITHER DOMINANT OR RECESSIVE

There are essentially two types of mutation that can occur in genes and their different effects are determined by the fact that dogs have two copies of every gene. The first type of mutation is known as a dominant mutation which means that if such a mutation occurs in a gene, the consequences will be felt despite the fact that there will also be a perfectly normal copy of the gene present. So, any animal that inherits a dominant mutation will be affected. The second type, a recessive mutation, is in many ways more sinister because if a recessive mutation occurs in a gene its effect is not noticed because the second, normal copy of the gene masks the presence of the recessive mutant gene. A disease caused by a recessive mutation will only be seen if an animal has two copies of the recessive mutation. This means that certain dogs can be carriers of a recessive mutation whilst outwardly appearing normal; you cannot tell a carrier just by looking at it. If two carriers mate, some of their offspring will inherit the recessive mutation from both the dam and the sire and therefore will be affected by the disease

 

INHERITED DISEASES IN DOGS

More than 350 inherited diseases have been described in dogs and many have been shown to be breed specific. (This sounds alarming, but contrast it with the fact there are over 3000 inherited diseases known in humans.) The precise mode of inheritance of approximately 175 of these diseases is known. 85% of these are known to be caused by a single gene mutation (so-called monogenic disorders); this figure breaks down into 70% being the result of a single recessive mutation and 15% being caused by a single dominant mutation. A further 10% give complex patterns of inheritance which cannot be explained on the basis of a single gene mutation. These diseases are known as polygenic diseases because the disease state results from the mutation of more than one gene. The best known polygenic disease is, of course, hip dysplasia which is present in a number of different breeds. Such diseases are obviously more difficult to interpret at the genetic level because we don’t know precisely how many gene mutations are involved and the precise contribution each makes to the final disease state. Often, as is the case with hip dysplasia, environmental factors may influence the degree of expression of the mutant genes.

Some of the mutant genes are present on the X chromosome giving rise to so-called sex-linked or X-linked inheritance. Haemophilia is one such sex-linked disease, both in dogs and humans. It can be caused by mutation of a gene which is known to be present on the X chromosome. As many of you will know from your history lessons, Queen Victoria was a carrier of haemophilia. These X-linked mutations give rise to a characteristic pattern of inheritance. The disease gene is passed down the female line, but is only usually expressed in male offspring, the female being carriers. The reason is that males possess a single X chromosome which they always inherit from their mother. If a male, by chance, inherits the maternal X containing the mutant gene, it will be affected. Mothers, on the other hand, are usually protected from the effects of the mutation by the presence of a normal gene on their second X chromosome. Sex-linked inheritance accounts for the final 5% of the diseases where the precise mode of inheritance is known.

 

IDENTIFYING MUTANT GENES

So, the vast majority of canine inherited disease appears to be caused by a simple recessive mutation. If we could find a way of identifying carriers of these recessive mutations we could use the information to design breeding programmes that will eventually lead to the dilution and possible elimination of the disease gene from an affected breed. The simplest way to identify carriers involves developing tests for the presence of the mutated gene. If a dog can be shown to possess one mutated gene and one normal gene it is clearly a carrier.

Being able to identify a mutated gene and distinguish it from its normal counterpart will allow us to identify carriers of inherited disease. Identifying mutant genes is a real genetic needle in a haystack quest, similar to attempting to find a single mis-spelled word in a copy of the Bible (an analogy coined by Dr Matthew Binns). We clearly need to have some powerful shortcuts if we are to successfully identify individual mutant genes. Fortunately, such shortcuts are now available.

One approach is the CANDIDATE GENE APPROACH

One approach which has proven successful is the so-called candidate gene approach. This requires the study of like diseases in different species. We know a great deal more about the genes of man and mouse, and the mutations that cause diseases in them, than we do of the dog. The use of a candidate gene approach is best exemplified by the research that led to the identification of the mutant gene responsible for PRA in the Irish Setter . PRA in the Irish Setter was known to be very similar to a disease called Retinitis Pigmentosa in man and an inherited disease in mouse caused by a mutation known as rde. Scientists were able to show that mutation of the same gene caused the human and mouse disease. When this gene was studied in the Irish Setter population, it was also shown to be responsible for PRA. A more recent example is the discovery of the gene responsible for PRA in the Cardigan Welsh Corgi. This newly-discovered mutation is different from the mutation causing PRA in the Setter.

Another approach is to use GENETIC MAPS.

Being able to use candidate genes gives a spectacular shortcut to the identification of individual genes involved in canine inherited disease. Unfortunately, for many of the canine inherited diseases, we cannot yet identify similar diseases in man or mouse so it is not possible to come up with candidate genes. An alternative short cut is required which will be generally applicable to all canine disease genes. For a number of years now scientists across the world have been collaborating to produce a genetic map of the canine genes. Just as a road map allows us to successfully navigate round the country and know precisely where we are, a genetic map allows us to wander along the canine chromosomes and know where we are at any particular time. The generation of the map, which is now nearing completion, requires us to lay down unique marker posts along each and every canine chromosome, each marker post identifying a unique position on just one chromosome.

 

HOW DOES THE GENETIC MAP HELP US TO IDENTIFY MUTANT GENES?

Well, we can use the map to discover which markers are physically close to the mutant gene causing the disease. To go back to the Bible analogy, this would be equivalent to identifying the precise page of the Bible on which the mis-spelled word is to be found, thus narrowing down the field of search. Identifying markers that are very close to the mutant gene, so-called linked markers, will identify a very small region of just one chromosome where the gene in question will be located. Not only will linked markers help narrow down the search field, they may also be diagnostic for the presence of the disease gene; if an individual animal possesses the linked marker it will, in all probability, also possess the mutant, disease gene. Such linked markers form the basis of the test for carriers of the Copper Toxicosis gene in Bedlington Terriers.

 

ONCE THE MUTANT GENE HAS BEEN IDENTIFIED, A DNA TEST CAN BE DEVELOPED

No matter how we have identified the mutant gene, either by the candidate gene approach or the linked marker approach, we now have the basis for a relatively simple test for the presence of the disease gene in individual animals. The test will be based on a small amount of DNA prepared from tissue taken from an individual dog. Ideally

blood tissue will be used, but using tissue samples taken with less invasive techniques, for example scraping cells from the inside of the cheek ( a buccal cell scrape), have also proved successful. This DNA sample will contain all the

chromosomal material, and hence all of the genes, present in that individual. The DNA will then be screened to see if it contains no copies, one copy or two copies of a particular mutant gene. For a disease known to result from a single

recessive mutation, if no mutant copies are present, the animal is clear, if one copy is present the animal is a carrier and if two copies of the mutant gene are present it will be affected.

 

HOW CAN THIS BE APPLIED TO BREEDING PROGRAMMES ?

Being able to identify carriers will have an immense impact on breeding programmes which will be able to be designed to reduce the frequency of the mutant gene in the breed. If possible, carriers can be removed from the breeding stock within a breed, thereby preventing them passing on their mutation to further generations. However, DNA technology offers far more than this. (In fact, carriers can be identified from traditional pedigree analysis without sophisticated DNA tests and removed from the breeding stock.) Removal of carriers from breeding stock may not be the ideal solution because, although you are minimising the spread of the mutant gene, you may also be removing positive qualities that the breed requires in order to maintain its overall health; in other words, you could be throwing the baby out with the bath water. The availability of a DNA test allows much more subtle manipulation of breeding programmes to reduce the frequency of a particular mutation whilst retaining some of the positive features present in affected lines. For example, let’s say that we have been able to identify a carrier bitch using a DNA test. Rather than simply removing this bitch from the breed’s pool of breeding bitches, we can screen potential mates and identify a dog that is clear of the mutation. If the clear dog and carrier bitch are now mated, approximately half of their offspring will be carriers and the other half will be totally clear of the disease gene, so there will be no clinically affected dogs in the litter. However, we can go one step further, by DNA testing the Reality can be different. In principle, if you flip a coin it has 50% chance of coming down ‘heads’ and 50% chance of coming down ‘tails’; in reality you often get runs of either ‘heads’ or ‘tails’. So, the proportion of offspring in individual litters could differ from the expected outcomes given above. Progeny, we can identify the carriers and the normals. Once identified, the normals can then be bred on thereby removing the mutant gene from the population, but at the same time retaining many of the positive features that the line has to offer. The DNA based test is a ‘once-only’ test which can be performed early in the life of the dog and the result will not change during its life.
The early identification of dogs affected with a late onset disease, one which often appears only after the natural reproductive life of the dog, will also be invaluable. Often the diagnosis of affected dogs is not made until after the natural reproductive  life of the dog which has thus passed on its  mutant gene before you have realised it was affected. Early identification of such dogs  will allow their removal from breeding programmes and  prevent them passing on the mutation to their offspring, but again, if necessary, they can be used for breeding in exactly the same way as we have already outlined.

For further information, contact the Kennel Club Canine Genetics Co-ordinator, Dr Jeff Sampson or Diana Nicolson at the Kennel Club, 1 – 5 Clarges Street, Piccadilly, London W1J 8AB. Telephone 020 7518 1023

 

GLOSSARY

(brief explanations of some terms that dog breeders may encounter)

Alleles: Alternative versions of the same gene, for example different alleles of genes are responsible for different eye colours.

Autosome: The general name given to all chromosomes other than the two involved in determining the sex of an individual (the X and Y chromosomes). The dog has 38 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.

Bases: There are four bases which join together to form DNA: Adenine, Guanine, Thymine and Cytosine, commonly identified by their initials A,G,T and C. The bases join end to end to give a molecule of DNA. The bases join in a specific sequence, and it is this base sequence that represents the genetic plan.

Candidate gene: A gene potentially involved in a particular inherited disease in the dog which has been identified because the same gene is known to be involved in a similar disease in either man or mouse.

Carrier: In the context of inherited disease, is a dog which carries a recessive, mutant allele that is matched by the presence of a normal allele. On average, it will pass on this mutant allele to half of its offspring.

Chromosome: The body that carries the DNA or hereditary material within the nucleus of cells. A thread of DNA runs along the length of each chromosome carrying individual genes. The cells of the dog contain 78 chromosomes in total (38 pairs of autosomes and two sex chromosomes).

Cloning: (A gene) The technique used to isolate a specific gene and make multiple copies of it.

Congenital: Present at birth. May be inherited, but not necessarily.

DNA: (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), the major constituent of genes. DNA consists of two chemical strands wrapped around each other in the form of a helix. Each strand is made up by the joining together of chemical units called bases. The base sequence of one of the two strands within a gene stores the genetic message that allows a cell to make a particular protein.

DNA Sample: There are different ways that samples of cells containing DNA can be collected from an individual. A blood sample, a scraping of cheek cells (known as a buccal sample), or hair roots are all sources commonly used.

Dominant mutation: A mutation that can express itself when present only as a single copy, even in the presence of a normal allele.

Gamete: A reproductive cell. In the male this is the sperm and in the female the egg. Gametes carry only half the genetic material needed to form an individual. At fertilisation, a male and female gamete unite and the genetic material combines. The process of gamete formation is known as gametogenesis.

Gene: The basic unit of inheritance; a region of DNA which controls the hereditary characteristics of an organism. Individual genes consist of a unique sequence of about 2000 bases which permits the cell to make a particular protein. Each individual has two sets of genes and passes on a copy of one set to each of its offspring.

Gene Pool: All of the genes that exist within an interbreeding population.

Genetic Map: Built up by discovering and recording the precise location of genes and other regions of DNA along the chromosomes. The locations of those different sequences of DNA represents the genetic map.

Genome: The name given to one complete set of chromosomes, and hence genes, within an organism.

Genotype: All of the genes found in the cells of an individual. The genetic make-up of an individual will influence the appearance or phenotype of that individual.

Heritability: The transmission of characteristics, or proportions of characteristics, from parent to offspring via the sex cells. Some characteristics or diseases have a higher heritability than others.

Heterozygous: Individuals that have two different alleles of a gene for a particular characteristic. If one allele is recessive and one is dominant, the effect caused by the dominant allele will be apparent.

Homozygous: Individuals that have identical alleles for a particular characteristic. Recessive characteristics will only show if an individual is homozygous for that characteristic.

Inbreeding: The mating of first degree relatives such as mother to son.

Line-breeding: Breeding between closely related individuals.

Linkage: Describes the co-inheritance of alleles of different genes. Genes that are linked are physically close to each other on the DNA molecule that makes up a chromosome.

Locus: Each gene has a unique position or locus on a DNA molecule.

Marker: A component of a genetic map which uniquely identifies a locus.

Microsatellite: A special region of DNA which possesses an unusual base sequence where two, three or four bases are repeated over and over again, for example CACACACA etc or GCGCGCGC etc. these microsatellites have proved to be very useful markers in developing the canine genetic map.

Monogenic: A characteristic controlled by a single gene.

Mutation: A permanent change in the base sequence of DNA. This may be the result of changing a single base to another one, the removal of part of the base sequence or the addition of extra bases in the sequence. When a mutation occurs within a gene, it may alter the genetic plan that is embedded within that gene.

Nucleus: A structure present within most cells which contains the DNA in the form of chromosomes.

Phenotype: The overall appearance of an individual; looks and behaviour. The phenotype is the physical expression of an individual’s genotype.

Polygenic: A characteristic controlled by more than one gene.

Recessive mutation: A mutation that is masked by the presence of a normal counterpart. Recessive mutations are only expressed when there are two copies of the mutation.

Sex chromosomes: Special chromosomes involved in determining the sex of an animal. In the dog, females possess two X chromosomes and males possess one X and one Y chromosome.

Sex-linked inheritance: Inheritance of characteristics that are determined by genes present on either the X or Y chromosome.

Somatic: All cells in a body apart from the reproductive cells (gametes).

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